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  • Journal article
    Mautner A, Lee K-Y, Tammelin T, Mathew AP, Nedoma AJ, Li K, Bismarck Aet al., 2015,

    Cellulose nanopapers as tight aqueous ultra-filtration membranes

    , REACTIVE & FUNCTIONAL POLYMERS, Vol: 86, Pages: 209-214, ISSN: 1381-5148
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Aitomaki Y, Berglund LA, Oksman K, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    On the use of nanocellulose as reinforcement in polymer matrix composites

    , COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol: 105, Pages: 15-27, ISSN: 0266-3538
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Blaker JJ, Heng JYY, Murakami R, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    pH-triggered phase inversion and separation of hydrophobised bacterial cellulose stabilised Pickering emulsions

    , REACTIVE & FUNCTIONAL POLYMERS, Vol: 85, Pages: 208-213, ISSN: 1381-5148
  • Journal article
    Montrikittiphant T, Tang M, Lee K-Y, Williams CK, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    Bacterial Cellulose Nanopaper as Reinforcement for Polylactide Composites: Renewable Thermoplastic NanoPaPreg

    , MACROMOLECULAR RAPID COMMUNICATIONS, Vol: 35, Pages: 1640-1645, ISSN: 1022-1336
  • Journal article
    Blaker JJ, Lee K-Y, Walters M, Drouet M, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    Aligned unidirectional PLA/bacterial cellulose nanocomposite fibre reinforced PDLLA composites

    , Reactive & Functional Polymers, Vol: 85, Pages: 185-192, ISSN: 1381-5148

    In an effort to enhance the properties of polylactide (PLA), we have developed melt-spinning techniques to produce both PLA/nanocellulose composite fibres, and a method akin to layered filament winding followed by compression moulding to produce self-reinforced PLA/nanocellulose composites. Poly(L-lactide) (PLLA) fibres were filled with 2 wt.% neat and modified bacterial cellulose (BC) in an effort to improve the tensile properties over neat PLA fibres. BC increased the viscosity of the polymer melt and reduced the draw-ratio of the fibres, resulting in increased fibre diameters. Nonetheless, strain induced chain orientation due to melt spinning led to PLLA fibres with enhanced tensile modulus (6 GPa) and strength (127 MPa), over monolithic PLLA, previously measured at 1.3 GPa and 61 MPa, respectively. The presence of BC also enhanced the nucleation and growth of crystals in PLA. We further produced PLA fibres with 7 wt.% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), which is higher than the percolation threshold (equivalent to 6 vol.%). These fibres were spun in multiple, alternating controlled layers onto spools, and subsequently compression moulded to produce unidirectional self-reinforced PLA composites consisting of 60 vol.% PLLA fibres reinforced with 7 wt.% CNC in a matrix of amorphous PDLLA, which itself contained 7 wt.% of CNC. We observed improvements in viscoelastic properties of up to 175% in terms of storage moduli in bending. Furthermore, strains to failure for PLLA fibre reinforced PDLLA were recorded at 17%.
  • Journal article
    Yata T, Lee K-Y, Dharakul T, Songsivilai S, Bismarck A, Mintz PJ, Hajitou Aet al., 2014,

    Hybrid Nanomaterial Complexes for Advanced Phage-guided Gene Delivery

    , MOLECULAR THERAPY-NUCLEIC ACIDS, Vol: 3, ISSN: 2162-2531
  • Book chapter
    Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2014,

    Handbook of Green Materials (volume 3): Processing Technologies, Properties and Applications

    , Handbook of Green Materials: Processing Technologies, Properties and Applications (in 4 Volumes), Editors: Oksman, Mathew, Bismarck, Publisher: ICE Publishing, ISBN: 9789814566452
  • Book chapter
    Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2014,

    Advanced bacterial cellulose composites

    , Handbook of Green Materials: Processing Technologies, Properties and Applications (in 4 Volumes), Editors: Oksman, Mathew, Bismarck, ISBN: 9789814566452
  • Book chapter
    Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2014,

    Chemical surface modification and adhesion of nanocellulose

    , Handbook of Green Materials: Processing Technologies, Properties and Applications (in 4 Volumes), Editors: Oksman, Mathew, Bismarck, ISBN: 9789814566452
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Shamsuddin SR, Fortea-Verdejo M, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    Manufacturing Of Robust Natural Fiber Preforms Utilizing Bacterial Cellulose as Binder

    , JOVE-JOURNAL OF VISUALIZED EXPERIMENTS, ISSN: 1940-087X
  • Journal article
    Mautner A, Lee K-Y, Lahtinen P, Hakalahti M, Tammelin T, Li K, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    Nanopapers for organic solvent nanofiltration

    , Chemical Communications, Vol: 50, Pages: 5778-5781, ISSN: 1364-548X

    Would it not be nice to have an organic solvent nanofiltration membrane made from renewable resources that can be manufactured as simply as producing paper? Here the production of nanofiltration membranes made from nanocellulose by applying a papermaking process is demonstrated. Manufacture of the nanopapers was enabled by inducing flocculation of nanofibrils upon addition of trivalent ions.
  • Book chapter
    Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2014,

    Creating hierarchical structures in (ligno)cellulosic fibres for green composites

    , Natural Fibre Composites, Editors: Hodzic, Shanks, Publisher: Woodhead Publishing, ISBN: 9780857099228
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Blaker JJ, Murakami R, Heng JYY, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    Phase Behavior of Medium and High Internal Phase Water-in-Oil Emulsions Stabilized Solely by Hydrophobized Bacterial Cellulose Nanofibrils

    , LANGMUIR, Vol: 30, Pages: 452-460, ISSN: 0743-7463
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Buldum G, Mantalaris A, Bismarck Aet al., 2014,

    More Than Meets the Eye in Bacterial Cellulose: Biosynthesis, Bioprocessing, and Applications in Advanced Fiber Composites

    , Macromolecular Bioscience, Vol: 14, Pages: 10-32, ISSN: 1616-5195

    Bacterial cellulose (BC) nanofibers are one of the stiffest organic materials produced by nature. It consists of pure cellulose without the impurities that are commonly found in plant-based cellulose. This review discusses the metabolic pathways of cellulose-producing bacteria and the genetic pathways of Acetobacter xylinum. The fermentative production of BC and the bioprocess parameters for the cultivation of bacteria are also discussed. The influence of the composition of the culture medium, pH, temperature, and oxygen content on the morphology and yield of BC are reviewed. In addition, the progress made to date on the genetic modification of bacteria to increase the yield of BC and the large-scale production of BC using various bioreactors, namely static and agitated cultures, stirred tank, airlift, aerosol, rotary, and membrane reactors, is reviewed. The challenges in commercial scale production of BC are thoroughly discussed and the efficiency of various bioreactors is compared. In terms of the application of BC, particular emphasis is placed on the utilization of BC in advanced fiber composites to manufacture the next generation truly green, sustainable and renewable hierarchical composites.
  • Journal article
    Lau THM, Wong LLC, Lee K-Y, Bismarck Aet al., 2013,

    Tailored for simplicity: creating high porosity, high performance bio-based macroporous polymers from foam templates

    , Green Chemistry, Vol: 16, Pages: 1931-1940, ISSN: 1744-1560

    Mechanical frothing can be used to create gas–liquid monomer foams, which can then be subsequently polymerised to produce macroporous polymers. Until recently, this technique was limited to producing low porosity macroporous polymers with poor pore morphology and compression properties. In this study, we show that high porosity (75–80%) biobased macroporous polymers with excellent mechanical compression properties (E = 163 MPa, σ = 4.9 MPa) can be produced by curing of epoxy resin foams made by mechanical frothing. The key to this is to utilise the very viscous nature and very short working time of a biobased epoxy resin. It was found that increasing the frothing time of the biobased epoxy resin reduces the pore diameter of the resulting macroporous polymers. These macroporous polymers were also found to be partially interconnected. The compression properties of the macroporous polymers with smaller average pore diameter were found to be higher than those of foams with larger pore diameters. Unlike emulsion templating, which uses high internal phase emulsions to produce macroporous polymers, called polyHIPEs, the mechanical frothing technique has the advantage of creating macroporous polymers from monomers which cannot be easily emulsified.
  • Journal article
    Tang M, Purcell M, Steele JAM, Lee K-Y, McCullen S, Shakesheff KM, Bismarck A, Stevens MM, Howdle SM, Williams CKet al., 2013,

    Porous Copolymers of epsilon-Caprolactone as Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering

    , MACROMOLECULES, Vol: 46, Pages: 8136-8143, ISSN: 0024-9297
  • Journal article
    Seydibeyoglu MO, Misra M, Mohanty A, Blaker JJ, Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, Kazemizadeh Met al., 2013,

    Green polyurethane nanocomposites from soy polyol and bacterial cellulose

    , JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE, Vol: 48, Pages: 2167-2175, ISSN: 0022-2461
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Qian H, Tay FH, Blaker JJ, Kazarian SG, Bismarck Aet al., 2013,

    Bacterial cellulose as source for activated nanosized carbon for electric double layer capacitors

    , JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE, Vol: 48, Pages: 367-376, ISSN: 0022-2461
    • Cite
    • Citations: 42
  • Journal article
    Quero F, Eichhorn SJ, Nogi M, Yano H, Lee K-Y, Bismarck Aet al., 2012,

    Interfaces in Cross-Linked and Grafted Bacterial Cellulose/Poly(Lactic Acid) Resin Composites

    , JOURNAL OF POLYMERS AND THE ENVIRONMENT, Vol: 20, Pages: 916-925, ISSN: 1566-2543
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Bharadia P, Blaker JJ, Bismarck Aet al., 2012,

    Short sisal fibre reinforced bacterial cellulose polylactide nanocomposites using hairy sisal fibres as reinforcement

    , COMPOSITES PART A-APPLIED SCIENCE AND MANUFACTURING, Vol: 43, Pages: 2065-2074, ISSN: 1359-835X
  • Journal article
    Lee K, Tang M, Williams CK, Bismarck Aet al., 2012,

    Carbohydrate derived copoly(lactide) as the compatibilizer for bacterial cellulose reinforced polylactide nanocomposites

    , Composites Science and Technology, Vol: 72, Pages: 1646-1650, ISSN: 0266-3538

    A novel, entirely bio-derived polylactide carbohydrate copolymer (RP1) is used as a compatibilizer, to produce bacterial cellulose (BC) poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) nanocomposites with improved mechanical properties. Contact angle measurements of RP1 droplets on single BC nanofibres proved that it has a higher affinity towards BC than PLLA. RP1 has a comparable Young’s modulus, but lower tensile strength, than PLLA. When RP1 was blended with PLLA at a concentration of 5 wt%, the tensile modulus and strength of the resulting polymer blend decreased from 4.08 GPa and 63.1, respectively, for PLLA to 3.75 GPa and 56.1 MPa. A composite of BC and PLLA (with 5 wt% RP1 and 5 wt% BC) has a higher Young’s modulus and tensile strength, compared to either pure PLLA or PLLA–BC nanocomposites.
  • Journal article
    Bismarck A, Burgstaller C, Lee KY, Madsen B, Muessig J, Santulli C, Scarponi Cet al., 2012,

    Recent Progress in Natural Fibre Composites: Selected Papers from the 3rd International Conference on Innovative Natural Fibre Composites for Industrial Applications, Ecocomp 2011 and BEPS 2011

    , JOURNAL OF BIOBASED MATERIALS AND BIOENERGY, Vol: 6, Pages: 343-345, ISSN: 1556-6560
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Tammelin T, Schulfter K, Kiiskinen H, Samela J, Bismarck Aet al., 2012,

    High Performance Cellulose Nanocomposites: Comparing the Reinforcing Ability of Bacterial Cellulose and Nanofibrillated Cellulose

    , ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES, Vol: 4, Pages: 4078-4086, ISSN: 1944-8244
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Ho KKC, Schlufter K, Bismarck Aet al., 2012,

    Hierarchical composites reinforced with robust short sisal fibre preforms utilising bacterial cellulose as binder

    , Composites Science and Technology, Vol: 72, Pages: 1479-1486, ISSN: 0266-3538

    A novel robust non-woven sisal fibre preform was manufactured using a papermaking process utilising nanosized bacterial cellulose (BC) as binder for the sisal fibres. It was found that BC provides significant mechanical strength to the sisal fibre preforms. This can be attributed to the high stiffness and strength of the BC network. Truly green non-woven fibre preform reinforced hierarchical composites were prepared by infusing the fibre preforms with acrylated epoxidised soybean oil (AESO) using vacuum assisted resin infusion, followed by thermal curing. Both the tensile and flexural properties of the hierarchical composites showed significant improvements over polyAESO and neat sisal fibre preform reinforced polyAESO. These results were corroborated by the thermo-mechanical behaviour of the (hierarchical) composites, which showed an increased storage modulus and enhanced fibre–matrix stress transfer. Micromechanical modelling was also performed on the (hierarchical) composites. By using BC as binder for short sisal fibres, added benefits such as the high Young’s modulus of BC, enhanced fibre–fibre and fibre–matrix stress transfer can be utilised in the resulting hierarchical composites.
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2012,

    Susceptibility of never-dried and freeze-dried bacterial cellulose towards esterification with organic acid

    , CELLULOSE, Vol: 19, Pages: 891-900, ISSN: 0969-0239
  • Book chapter
    Shamsuddin S-R, Ho KKC, Lee K-Y, Hodgkinson JM, Bismarck Aet al., 2012,

    Carbon fibres: Properties, testing and analysis

    , Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites, 5 Volume Set, Editors: Nicolais, Borzacchiello, Lee, Publisher: Wiley, ISBN: 9780470128282

    Written by prominent international experts from industry and academia, the Wiley Encyclopedia of Composites, Second Edition presents over 260 new and revised articles addressing the new technological advances in properties, processing, ...
  • Patent
    Lee K-Y, Bharadia P, Bismarck A, 2012,

    Nanocellulose surface coated support material

    , US9193130
  • Journal article
    Ege D, Lee K, Bismarck A, Best S, Cameron Ret al., 2012,

    Evaluation of the degradation properties of carbonate substituted hydroxyapatite-poly(ε-caprolactone) composites

    , Key Engineering Materials, Vol: 493-494, Pages: 120-125, ISSN: 1013-9826

    The aim of this work is to produce and characterise carbonate substituted hydroxyapatite (CHA) reinforced polycaprolactone (PCL) nanocomposites with a controlled degradation rate in order to match the rate of bone in-growth. The ideal degradation time for this purpose is estimated to be around 5-6 months however, in vivo, PCL degrades over a period of 2 to 3 years. It has been reported that NaOH surface treatment can accelerate the degradation of PCL [1-3]. In order to further modify the degradation rate of PCL, the effects of the incorporation of different volume fractions of CHA in samples surface treated with NaOH was investigated. CHA was produced by wet chemical synthesis. Samples comprising 8, 19, 25 wt% uncalcined CHA-PCL composites were produced by twin screw extrusion which were then injection moulded into cylinders. In order to accelerate the degradation rate of PCL, it was surface treated with 5 M NaOH for 3 days prior to PBS studies. The degradation profile was examined by % weight loss and % water uptake measurements. NaOH treatment was observed to erode the polymer surface and the polymer-filler interface. On subsequently degrading the pre-treated samples in PBS, it was observed that with increasing fraction of CHA, the degradation rate in PBS of the sample increased. Up to 8 wt % CHA filler there appeared to be little change in the degradation properties of the NaOH treated samples with the onset occurring after 60 days. However there was a marked acceleration of degradation for samples containing 19 wt% when degradation appeared to occur immediately. In conclusion, the addition of CHA significantly affects the behaviour of PCL. © (2012) Trans Tech Publications.
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Quero F, Blaker JJ, Hill CAS, Eichhorn SJ, Bismarck Aet al., 2011,

    Surface only modification of bacterial cellulose nanofibres with organic acids

    , CELLULOSE, Vol: 18, Pages: 595-605, ISSN: 0969-0239
  • Book chapter
    Lee K-Y, Delille A, Bismarck A, 2011,

    Greener surface treatments of natural fiber reinforcements for use in the production of composite materials

    , Cellulose Fibers: Bio- and Nano-Polymer Composites, Editors: Kalia, Kaith, Kaur, Publisher: Springer Science & Business Media, ISBN: 9783642173707

    This handbook deals with cellulose fibers and nano-fibers and covers the latest advances in bio- and nano- polymer composite materials.
  • Journal article
    Blaker JJ, Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2011,

    Hierarchical Composites Made Entirely from Renewable Resources

    , JOURNAL OF BIOBASED MATERIALS AND BIOENERGY, Vol: 5, Pages: 1-16, ISSN: 1556-6560
  • Book chapter
    Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, 2011,

    Assessing the moisture uptake behaviour of natural fibres

    , Interface Engineering of Natural Fibre Composites for Maximum Performance, Editors: Zafeiropoulos, Publisher: Elsevier, ISBN: 9780857092281

    One of the major reasons for composite failure is a breakdown of the bond between the reinforcement fibres and the matrix. When this happens, the composite loses strength and fails.
  • Journal article
    Quero F, Nogi M, Lee K-Y, Vanden Poel G, Bismarck A, Mantalaris A, Yano H, Eichhorn SJet al., 2011,

    Cross-Linked Bacterial Cellulose Networks Using Glyoxalization

    , ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES, Vol: 3, Pages: 490-499, ISSN: 1944-8244
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Wong LLC, Blaker JJ, Hodgkinson JM, Bismarck Aet al., 2011,

    Bio-based macroporous polymer nanocomposites made by mechanical frothing of acrylated epoxidised soybean oil

    , Green Chemistry, Vol: 13, Pages: 3117-3123, ISSN: 1463-9262
  • Journal article
    Blaker JJ, Lee K-Y, Mantalaris A, Bismarck Aet al., 2010,

    Ice-microsphere templating to produce highly porous nanocomposite PLA matrix scaffolds with pores selectively lined by bacterial cellulose nano-whiskers

    , COMPOSITES SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, Vol: 70, Pages: 1879-1888, ISSN: 0266-3538
  • Journal article
    Chrzanowski W, Abou Neel EA, Lee K-Y, Bismarck A, Young AM, Hart AD, Dalby MJ, Knowles JCet al., 2010,

    Tailoring Cell Behavior on Polymers by the Incorporation of Titanium Doped Phosphate Glass Filler

    , ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS, Vol: 12, Pages: B298-B308, ISSN: 1438-1656
  • Journal article
    Lee K-Y, Blaker JJ, Bismarck A, 2009,

    Surface functionalisation of bacterial cellulose as the route to produce green polylactide nanocomposites with improved properties

    , Composites Science and Technology, Vol: 69, Pages: 2724-2733, ISSN: 0266-3538

    The effect of surface functionalisation of bacterial cellulose nanofibrils (BC) and their use as reinforcement for polylactide (PLLA) nanocomposites was investigated. BC was functionalised with various organic acids via an esterification reaction. This rendered the otherwise hydrophilic BC hydrophobic and resulted in better compatibility (interfacial adhesion) between PLLA and BC. A direct wetting method, allowing the determination of the contact angle of polymer droplets on a single BC nanofibre, was developed to quantify the interfacial adhesion between PLLA and functionalised BC. It was found that the contact angle between PLLA droplets and functionalised BC decreased with increasing chain lengths of the organic acids used to hydrophobise BC. A novel method to compound BC with PLLA based on thermally induced phase separation (TIPS) to yield a dry form of pre-extrusion composite was also developed. The mechanical properties of the surface functionalised BC reinforced PLLA nanocomposites showed significant improvements when compared to neat PLLA and BC reinforced PLLA. The thermal degradation and viscoelastic behaviour of the nanocomposites were also improved over neat PLLA.
  • Journal article
    Blaker JJ, Lee K-Y, Li X, Menner A, Bismarck Aet al., 2009,

    Renewable nanocomposite polymer foams synthesized from Pickering emulsion templates

    , GREEN CHEMISTRY, Vol: 11, Pages: 1321-1326, ISSN: 1463-9262

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